Glossary

The classification used to index the documents on Encyclopedia pratensis is based upon the Self-assessment tool developed as part of the G4AE project and has been converted into a glossary in order for users to quickly access reliable, high-quality definitions of concepts related to agroecology in grazing-based animal production systems.

The definitions were developed by aligning them with existing reference resources (e.g. INRAE thesaurus, AGROVOC, dicoAE) or generated by LLMs. In both cases, the definitions were then checked, corrected and validated by a scientific expert in the field.

Artificial intelligence tools have been used to translate some definitions to english.

Currently one third of the total definitions has been validated. The missing ones will be published by mid-2026.

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A

Access to shade: a) The possibility, within an agro‑ecosystem or on a farm, to provide a shaded area or shelter (natural: hedgerows, trees, vegetative cover, groves; or artificial: structures, tarps, buildings) that protects crops livestock, workers, or biodiversity from climatic constraints such as intense solar radiation, excessive heat, rain, or wind. b) An ecosystem service delivered by “agro‑ecological infrastructures” (habitats within agro‑ecosystems where spontaneous vegetation or service‑cover crops develop) and incorporated into sustainable intensification strategies, contributing to resilience, animal and human well‑being, and agricultural productivity.
Acidosis: A pathologic condition of acid accumulation or depletion of base in the body. The two main types are respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis, due to metabolic acid build up. It is frequently met for ruminants when the diet lacks of roughage and cellulosis.
Adaptation: Process by which an agro ecological system, a community, or an agricultural practice alters its structures, functions, or management approaches in order to cope with environmental, climatic, social, or economic disturbances and to regain or maintain its usual level of activity. In the context of agroecology, adaptation refers to the capacity of an agro ecosystem (farm, watershed, territory) to adjust its biodiversity, soil health, the knowledge and practices of its actors to address constraints (climate change, market fluctuations, cultural issues) while preserving food sovereignty and the system resilience.
Adapted breeds: An animal breed whose genetic, phenotypic and behavioral characteristics are specifically adjusted to the pedoclimatic and sanitary constraints, as well as the limited resources, of a given environment, allowing production to be maintained with minimal inputs and low care requirements.
Additional feeding: Feed or food supplied to meet the nutrient requirement of organisms for maintenance and growth when initial diet is inadequate.
Agricultural field area: Total surface of the territory devoted to agricultural activity, encompassing the utilised agricultural soils (UAA/SAU): permanent pastures, alpine pastures, summer pastures, low productivity grassland areas and fallow lands as defined by the Common Agricultural Policy. This area excludes waste lands and lands that are neither cultivated nor grazed and therefore are not part of the UAA/SAU. It represents the spatial measure of the agro ecosystem at the level of the farm or of the agricultural watershed.
Agricultural field layout: a) Spatial organization of fields and cultivated surfaces within an agricultural territory, including the distribution of crops, conservation zones (hedgerows, grass strips, natural meadows), agro ecological infrastructures (agroforestry, agro silvo pastoralism) and soil management elements (vegetative cover, rotations, crop sequences). b) Functional arrangement of land intended to optimize ecosystem services (water retention, biodiversity, fertility) while meeting production demands, economic sustainability and social equity.
Agricultural field size: The area of a cultivated parcel, typically expressed in hectares or acres, that determines the spatial extent of an agricultural field. This dimension influences management practices (crop rotations, intercropping, associated crops), the implementation of agro‑ecological infrastructures (hedgerows, grassy strips, agroforestry), and the field’s capacity to contribute to ecosystem functions and biodiversity within an agro‑ecosystem.
Agricultural field use: The set of practices, designs, and management approaches applied to cultivated areas or agricultural watersheds, aimed at producing agricultural goods (cereals, fruits, forages, etc.) while delivering ecosystem services (water retention, soil conservation, biodiversity, carbon sequestration). It encompasses cropping systems (crop rotations, inter cropping, mixed cropping), vegetative covers (service strips, hedgerows, grassy margins), livestock production forms (agro silvo pastoralism, grazing), as well as agro ecological infrastructures (agroforestry, natural pastures) that promote environmental resilience, economic viability, and social equity.
Agritourism: Form of tourism that involves making a working farm a travel destination for paying guests for educational and/or recreational purposes.
Agroforestry: The interplanting of crops and trees. In semiarid regions and on denuded hillsides, agroforestry helps control erosion and restores soil fertility, as well as supplying valuable food and commodities at the same time.
Alfalfa: Perennial forage legume, cultivated all over the world and producing protein rich forage, harvested as hay, haylage or for production of dehydrated pellets.
Analysis: Examination or determination.
Animal breed: A group of animals of the same species with similar appearance and closely related genetics. The affiliation of an animal to a breed may be accompanied by an entry in a herdbook.
Animal behaviour and welfare: The totality of an animal attitudes, reactions, and physiological states, encompassing its subjective experience of the environment, its ability to express natural behaviours, and its level of comfort, health, and satisfaction. This concept covers both the assessment of the animal affective experience (consciousness, perception) and the consideration of its welfare within an agro‑ecological farming system, where animal welfare, the wellbeing of the farmers, and environmental protection are regarded as interdependent.
Animal control: A comprehensive set of measures and practices designed to monitor, regulate, and manage animal populations within a livestock system or agricultural operation. It encompasses disease prevention and control (health management), reproductive management, feed optimization, monitoring of animal welfare and health, and the adjustment of stocking density or herd distribution so as to reconcile productive performance with animal welfare standards and environmental requirements.
Animal diversity: The set of genetic, taxonomic and functional variations of animals present in a given environment, encompassing species richness, population distribution, and their ecological interactions. In an agro‑ecological context, it denotes the diversity of animal species (invertebrates, vertebrates, pollinators, predators, decomposers, etc.) that contribute to ecosystem services (pollination, pest regulation, nutrient cycling) and strengthen the resilience of production systems. Animal diversity therefore constitutes an essential component of biodiversity at the species, population and genetic levels.
Animal health: A conceptual framework that encompasses both animal diseases and their management. The issues related to animal health impact food security, agricultural economics, and the broader array of economic activities that stem from it. Additional concerns include public health (zoonoses, xenobiotics, antibiotic resistance), environmental, and animal welfare issues.
Animal mixtures: A set composed of two or more animal species, or animal‑origin products, combined within a single unit of use or study. This notion applies, in particular, to:
• Animal nutrition: a blend of different animal‑origin ingredients (e.g., fish meal, meat proteins, fats, etc.) intended to formulate balanced rations for livestock production.
• Pasture management: the association of several herbivore species (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats) grazing simultaneously in order to optimise use of the vegetative cover, reduce grazing pressure on specific plant species, and enhance the resilience of the agro‑ecological system.
• Research or conservation: the combination of different animal species within the same experimental set‑up or reintroduction programme to study interspecific interactions, community dynamics, or to restore missing ecological functions.
In all cases, animal mixtures aim to exploit the complementarities among their components to improve nutritional, ecological, or scientific performance.
Animal products: Agricultural goods derived from animal husbandry, encompassing foodstuffs and raw materials obtained from animals (meat, milk, eggs, cheese, honey, wool, leather, fur, etc.) as well as the associated by‑products, used as food, raw material, or energy sources within an agro‑ecosystem.
Animal release: Action consisting of releasing animals from an enclosure or farm so that they can graze, move freely, or access an outdoor environment, with the aim of respecting their natural feeding behavior and improving their welfare.
Animal species: A group of individuals belonging to the same species within the animal kingdom, characterized by shared morphological, physiological, and genetic traits. In an agroecological context, animal species can serve as providers of ecosystem services (pollination, biological control, organic‑matter recycling) or, conversely, be perceived as pests when they damage crops or livestock.
Animal welfare: Physical and mental state of an animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies.
Antibiotic: A chemical substance, produced by microorganisms and synthetically, that has the capacity to inhibit the growth of, and even to destroy, bacteria and other microorganisms.
Aquatic habitats: Natural or semi natural environments characterized by the presence of water (fresh or brackish)—rivers, streams, ponds, marshes, peatlands, lagoons, etc.—that constitute an element of the “blue network” and deliver essential ecological functions (biodiversity, ecological connectivity, hydrological regulation) by providing living, breeding and feeding spaces for aquatic and semi aquatic species.
Arable area: Extent of land, natural or artificially modified, that is suitable for plant production, where the depth, soil structure (arable horizons, compacted B horizons, and the absence of obstacles to the penetration of tillage implements) and climatic conditions permit the cultivation of annual or permanent crops. It generally corresponds to the utilised agricultural area (UAA) of a farm, encompassing both cultivated fields and soil horizons that are favorable to germination, root development, and harvest.
Arable crops: A plant or a group of plants grown on the utilised agricultural area (UAA) of a farm, i.e., on arable land (soils that are suitable for cropping). They are part of a crop sequence, contribute to crop rotation, and are managed through a cropping system: an ordered set of technical operations and agronomic decisions aimed at optimising yield, product qualities, sustainability and ecosystem services (for example, by using crop auxiliaries).
Arable farming: Growing crops as opposed to dairy farming, cattle farming, etc.
Arable field: A portion of agricultural land characterized by arable soil, designated for the production of a specific crop (species, variety, or species mixture). It represents an operational unit of generally limited duration (an agricultural campaign or cropping period) and is described through a cultural profile, which analyzes the soil horizons and climatic conditions that affect the development of crops and the living communities within the field.
Arable field configuration: In agronomy, the term designates the total set of spatial, morphological, and functional characteristics of a cultivable territory. It comprises:

• Field distribution and structuring (size, shape, orientation, continuity or fragmentation) resulting especially from processes of land consolidation or the merging of holdings.
• Arrangement of soil horizons, from the surface (seed‑bed, mulch) down to the maximum or potential depth reachable by roots, including the upper and lower limits of the cultural profile.
• Organization of crops and agronomic practices (rotations, catch crops, cover crops) that are embedded within this spatial and soil framework.
  This concept enables the evaluation of the conditions in which crops and the living communities of a field develop, as well as the possibilities for agroecological optimisation at the scale of an observation station or an agricultural watershed
  Arable land: Land used for cultivation of temporary crops in rotation with fallow, meadows and pastures within cycles/rotations of up to five years.
  Arable land size: Measurement of the area occupied by soils classified as “arable,” i.e., soils suitable for the cultivation of annual or biennial crops intended for agricultural production. It is normally expressed in units of surface (hectares, ares, square metres) and corresponds to the portion of territory that excludes permanent pastures, alpine meadows, fallow lands that are not grazed, and areas designated as “set‑aside” or other non‑cultivated uses, according to statistical classifications (e.g., Teruti). In an agronomic assessment, arable land size is used to estimate production potential, to plan crop rotations, and to analyse the impact of soil management practices (rest periods, ploughing, drainage, etc.).
  Area: A period or geographic space bounded by a set of homogeneous characteristics (pedological, climatic, hydrological, morphological, or usage‑related) that condition the ecological or agronomic processes occurring within it. In the agricultural domain, an area may refer to:
  • A space where the cultural profile (soil horizons, root depth, mulch, seedbed) interacts with the climate of the cropping year;
  • A wetland, defined by soil morphology and the prolonged presence of water (with or without hygrophilous vegetation);
  • A region (e.g., mountain zones, arid Mediterranean areas, forest covers) where pedoclimatic conditions (relief, water scarcity, solar exposure, soil depth and fertility) influence agro‑silvo‑pastoral systems.
  Area size: Measure of the surface occupied by a geographic, ecological, or administrative entity, expressed in units of area (m², ha, km², etc.). It represents the total extent of a defined space, irrespective of its nature (land, water, habitat, protected zone, etc.).
  Area width: Horizontal dimension measured perpendicular to the main axis of a zone (e.g., a wetland, a cultural profile, an agro‑silvo‑pastoral area), expressing the lateral extent or physical width of that zone on the ground. It is determined from pedological, hydrological, or morphological reference points and is used to characterize the spatial extent of the studied environments.
  Autumn: The season that follows summer and precedes winter, characterized in the temperate Northern Hemisphere by a gradual decline in temperature, the shedding of leaves from deciduous trees, and often increased precipitation. In regions with a Mediterranean climate, autumn may be relatively wet compared to the drier winter, and it contributes to a less pronounced Mediterranean character when it alternates with spring.
  Autumn grazing: A livestock‑raising practice that involves allowing cattle, sheep, or other herd animals to feed on pastures during the autumn season, typically as part of a rotational grazing system in agroecology. The practice aims to make use of the residual summer plant growth, maintain pasture health and biodiversity, reduce the need for purchased forages, and increase the self‑sufficiency of farms.
  Autumn sowing: An agricultural practice that involves sowing the seeds of annual or perennial crops during the autumn period, typically after the first frost or as soon as night temperatures become sufficiently cool to allow good germination. This method takes advantage of autumnal climate conditions (adequate moisture and moderate temperatures) to promote early germination, strong root development before winter, and a head start on growth in the spring, thereby reducing the need for irrigation and other inputs. Autumn sowing is commonly used for cereals (wheat, barley), legumes, green manures, as well as certain cover and forage crops, and it often forms part of agro‑ecological systems aimed at increasing farm self‑sufficiency and optimizing the use of natural resources.
  Average field size: Statistical measure of the average area of agricultural or land fields within a given territory, obtained by dividing the total cultivated (or total exploitable) land area by the number of fields considered. This information is used to characterize landscape fragmentation, assess the intensity of agricultural exploitation, and guide soil‑management, urbanisation, or resource‑conservation policies.
  Avian habitat features: The ensemble of physical, biological and landscape attributes of a space (linear, areal or point‑based) that determine the presence, distribution, behaviour and reproductive success of birds. It encompasses in particular:
  • the structure and composition of vegetation (hedgerows, tree rows, copses, flood‑prone meadows, wetlands, etc.),
  • the availability of food resources (insects, seeds, fruits),
  • the presence of nesting or resting sites (isolated trees, low walls, embankments, ponds),
  • the configuration of relief and edge features (field margins, banks, ditches), the interaction with agroecological infrastructures (unharvested vegetative cover, semi‑natural habitats) that provide biodiversity reservoirs and ecosystem services favourable to bird populations.

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Calf rearing: An animal husbandry practice that involves feeding, growing, and managing young bovines (calves) from birth until weaning or placement on pasture, usually within extensive or semi extensive systems that aim to limit inputs, preserve soil health, and ensure animal welfare while enhancing ecosystem services and the plant diversity of pastures.
Calf welfare and health: The whole physical, physiological, behavioral, and environmental conditions that ensure calves achieve an optimal state of balance, encompassing comfort, the fulfillment of their nutritional, social, and natural expression needs, as well as the prevention, detection (screening), and treatment of diseases. This concept is embedded in an agroecological “One Health” approach, in which animal welfare, soil health, and the environment are interdependent and aim to guarantee sustainable, life respecting production.
Catch crop: An intermediate, often short duration crop sown or planted between the harvest of a main crop and the sowing of the subsequent crop, during the so called interculture period. It is used primarily to temporarily exploit the agricultural surface, to protect the soil, to improve fertility, or to diversify the crop rotation.
Cattle: Domesticated bovine animals, including cows, steers and bulls, raised and bred on a ranch or farm.
Cheese: Cheese is the ripened or unripened soft, semi-hard, hard, or extra-hard product, which may be coated, and in which the whey protein/casein ratio does not exceed that of milk, obtained by coagulating wholly or partly the protein of milk, skimmed milk, partly skimmed milk, cream, whey cream or buttermilk, or any combination of these materials, through the action of rennet or other suitable coagulating agents, and by partially draining the whey resulting from the coagulation.
Chemical: Any substance used in or resulting from a reaction involving changes to atoms or molecules.
Chemical fertiliser: Fertilizer manufactured from chemicals. It mainly includes nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilisers; excessive use of them can cause pollution, when all the chemicals are not taken up by the plants and the excess is leached out of the soil into rivers and may cause algal bloom.
Climate: The average weather condition in a region of the world. Many aspects of the Earth’s geography affect the climate. Equatorial, or low, latitudes are hotter than the polar latitudes because of the angle at which the rays of sunlight arrive at the Earth’s surface. The difference in temperature at the equator and at the poles has an influence on the global circulation of huge masses of air. Cool air at the poles sinks and spreads along the surface of the Earth towards the equator. Cool air forces its way under the lower density warmer air in the lower regions, pushing the lighter air up and toward the poles, where it will cool and descend.
Climate condition: The set of atmospheric characteristics (temperature, precipitation, humidity, sunshine, wind, etc.) that describe the state of the climate of a specific location and time period, and that determine the suitability of the land for agricultural activities (e.g., availability of working days, crop growth, pedoclimatic constraints).
Climate stress: Pressure exerted on living organisms, crops, soils, or ecosystems resulting from abnormal or extreme climatic variations (elevated or low temperatures, irregular precipitation, drought, flooding, etc.). This phenomenon, intensified by climate change, disrupts the pedoclimate, alters soil micro‑climates, and creates hydraulic, thermal, or oxidative constraints that impair biological performance, reduce agricultural productivity, and undermine the stability of ecosystem services.
Clover: A very large family of legumes, annual or perennial, some species of which are used as a source of fodder and for sowing grassland.
CMR: A chemical substance classified as “carcinogenic, mutagenic or reproductive toxicant,” meaning that, under European legislation (CLP regulation, REACH), it exhibits at least one of the following three properties: the ability to cause cancer, to induce genetic mutations, or to impair fertility and the development of the organism. These substances are subject to strict restrictions in agriculture because of their risks to human health, biodiversity, and their environmental persistence.
Co-grazing: A livestock‑management practice that involves grazing multiple animal species (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, horses, or even wildlife) together on the same pasture. The goal is to optimise the use of plant resources, enhance pasture biodiversity, and strengthen ecosystem services such as soil fertility, parasite control, and overall resilience.
This approach aligns with the principles of agro‑ecology and rotational grazing, fostering the co‑production of agricultural products and environmental services.
Colostrum management: The set of practices intended to ensure the collection, storage, preservation, and administration of colostrum (the first milk, rich in immunoglobulins, growth factors, and nutrients) to newborns, with the goal of optimizing passive immunity transfer, survival, and the health of young animals.
Colostrum quality: Refers to the overall physicochemical and biological characteristics of colostrum—the first milk secreted by mammals after parturition—that determine its ability to provide optimal immune protection and nutritional support to neonates. This quality is typically assessed by the concentration of immunoglobulins (especially IgG), total protein content, levels of growth factors, vitamins, minerals, and energy sources (fat and lactose), as well as by practical measurements such as Brix value or density.
High colostrum quality indicates a strong capacity to transfer maternal antibodies, promote intestinal development, and support the growth of the young animal.
Competition: a) active demand by two or more organisms for a material or condition, so that both are inhibited by the demand, e.g. plants competing for light and water; b) active demand by two or more substances for the same binding site on an enzyme or receptor. alt. competitive binding.
Complementarity: In agroecology, complementarity refers to the property whereby different elements (plant species, hedge strata, forage resources, scientific approaches, etc.) combine in such a way that they cover distinct functions or periods in time and space, so that their interaction generates productivity, resilience, and ecosystem services that exceed the sum of their individual contributions.
Complementary activities: A set of actions or practices carried out alongside a primary activity (e.g., agricultural production) in order to exploit local resources, link diverse potentials, and incorporate exogenous products or techniques. It seeks to enhance the autonomy, resilience, and sustainability of the system by addressing environmental, social, or economic constraints.
Concentrate: Feed that supplements fodder, with a high content of at least one nutrient: energy (UFL), protein (PDI and MAT), minerals.
Connectivity: In agroecology, the degree of spatial and functional interconnection among the various habitats, crops, agro‑ecological infrastructures, and surrounding environments of an agroecosystem, enabling the movement and exchange of organisms, genes, pollinators, nutrients, energy, and other ecological flows, as well as the continuity of associated socio‑economic processes.
Conservation: A set of practices and measures aimed at preserving, protecting, and maintaining biological resources, habitats, and biodiversity in order to ensure their long‑term viability and ecological functions. In the agro‑ecological context, conservation specifically refers to the management of environments and auxiliary species (for example, through composite hedgerows or “resource” habitats) to promote biological pest control by conserving crops and to support ecological corridors within the green‑blue infrastructure.
Consumer: A consumer is a person or a group who intends to order, or use purchased goods, products, or services primarily for personal, social, family, household and similar needs, who is not directly related to entrepreneurial or business activities. The term most commonly refers to a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.
Continuous linear structure: A spatially uninterrupted, elongated element within a landscape—such as hedgerows, riparian corridors, field margins, or ecological pathways—that retains a consistent configuration over time and fulfills multiple functions: linking agricultural production with environmental conservation, providing habitat connectivity, supporting biodiversity, and shaping the morphodynamic and habitability characteristics of the surrounding ecosystem. Its persistence is assessed in terms of structural durability, functional longevity, and its contribution to the long‑term organization and dynamics of land‑use and natural processes.
Control: The action or power to direct, regulate, or limit the behaviour, development, or functioning of an organism, process, or system. In agriculture and agroecology, the term refers to the set of practices, techniques, or measures implemented to manage populations of organisms (pests, diseases, unwanted species), inputs (water, nutrients, energy), or processes (crop growth, soil quality) in order to achieve production, sustainability, or environmental protection objectives. Control can be mechanical, biological, chemical, cultural, or integrated.
Control of invasive species: The set of practices and interventions aimed at limiting, eradicating, or containing the spread of non‑native or exotic species that become established unchecked in an environment, to the detriment of local species, biodiversity, and ecological functions. It relies in particular on biocontrol methods (use of natural enemies), habitat management (creation or restoration of agro‑ecological infrastructures such as service plants), regulation of human activities (monitoring, restrictions on introductions), and ecological monitoring (assessment of impacts on agricultural yields and ecosystem services).
Cost: In economics, the value of the factors of production used by a firm in producing or distributing goods and services or engaging in both activities.
Creek: A narrow inlet or bay, especially of the sea.
Crop rotation: An agricultural technique in which, season after season, each field is sown with crop plants in a regular rotation, each crop being repeated at intervals of several years. Crop rotation minimizes the risks of depleting the soil of particular nutrients and avoids pest proliferation.
Cross-breeding: Mating between members of different populations (lines, breeds, races or species).
Crude protein: Complex, organic compound made up of amino acids that contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur.
Cubicle: A division or compartment for an animal or animals, usually within a building.
Cultivated field shape: Spatial configuration of cultivated fields or surfaces, characterized by their size, shape (rectangular, elongated, irregular, etc.) and arrangement. It results from agricultural land‑use planning (land consolidation, property aggregation, pedological and topographic constraints) and influences cropping practices as well as agro‑ecosystem functions.
Cutting date: Dates during which harvest of the crop actually occurs – combining, picking, cutting, pulling, and so on.

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E

Ecosystem: A dynamic assemblage of abiotic components (soil, climate, water, nutrients) and biotic components (plant, animal, and microbial species) that interact with one another and with their surroundings, constituting a functional system of energy, material, and flow exchanges (nutrient cycling, pollination, population regulation) within a defined spatial area.
Ecosystem service: A benefit or good that humans obtain, directly or indirectly, from ecosystems. It encompasses the functions of the natural environment that contribute to provisioning (food, fiber, water), regulating (climate, air‑ and water‑quality, pollination, erosion control), cultural services (aesthetic value of landscapes, recreation, spiritual values), and supporting services (soil fertility, biogeochemical cycles). These services can be assessed, sometimes in monetary terms, and are often co‑produced by ecological processes and human activities.
Effluents: Wastewater (sewage or other liquid waste, esp. toxic waste) that flows into a body of water such as a river or lake.
Environment: A concept which includes all aspects of the surroundings of humanity, affecting individuals and social groupings. The European Union has defined the environment as “the combination of elements whose complex interrelationships make up the settings, the surroundings and the conditions of life of the individual and of society, as they are or as they are felt”. The environment thus includes the built environment, the natural environment and all natural resources, including air, land and water. It also includes the surroundings of the workplace.
Environment protection: Measures and controls to prevent damage and degradation of the environment, including the sustainability of its living resources.
Equipment: Any collection of materials, supplies or apparatuses stored, furnished or provided for an undertaking or activity.
Extend grazing areas: Verb describing the action of increasing the land area dedicated to livestock feeding by incorporating or expanding grassy parcels (for example, grassed buffer strips along field edges, elementary patches of terrain, or additional pasture zones). This extension aims to improve forage availability, reduce erosion and the dispersion of agricultural inputs, and promote ecological diversity within agricultural landscapes.
Extensive farming: A system of raising crops and animals, usually on large parcels of land, where a comparatively small amount of production inputs or labor are used per acre. Compare intensive farming.
External farm areas: Areas located outside the cultivated plots of an agricultural holding, characterized by natural or semi‑natural habitats (forests, grasslands, wetlands, riparian woodlands, marginal lands, etc.). They are an integral part of the agro‑ecosystem and provide essential ecosystem services: water regulation, carbon storage, biodiversity conservation, pollination, biological pest control, and buffering of the negative impacts of agricultural activities. These spaces, often referred to as buffer zones or margins, are not intended for direct production of agricultural goods but contribute to the sustainability and resilience of the production system.

F

Facilitation: Facilitation means “to free from difficulties or obstacles; make easier, aid, assist.” Facilitation aims to make processes or discussions easier and more effective. In ecology, facilitation refers to the process through which a species improves the living conditions for other species within the same community and ecosystem.
Farm: A spatial unit of agricultural production, typically a single plot or a collection of plots managed by an individual farmer or a collective entity, where activities such as cropping, livestock rearing, processing, and marketing of agricultural goods take place. It constitutes an agro‑ecosystem: a cultivated system whose ecosystem functions (soil fertility, nutrient cycling, biodiversity, pollination services, etc.) are harnessed and valued by humans to deliver agricultural products (cereals, vegetables, meat, milk, etc.) and ecosystem services (carbon sequestration, hydrological regulation, etc.).
From a circular‑economy perspective, the farm integrates environmentally‑responsible practices (e.g., small‑scale anaerobic digestion, use of co‑products, tool sharing, short supply chains, agritourism, etc.) aimed at optimizing efficiency, profitability, and resilience while reducing its environmental footprint. The “High Environmental Value” (HVE) certification may be awarded to farms that achieve an advanced level of agro‑ecology and sustainability.
Farm management: The administration or handling of a farm, considering the productive, economic, environmental and social dimensions. It includes the management of soil, crops and livestock.
Farm product: Agricultural products that are either in their original form or have undergone only primary processing. Examples include cereals, coffee beans, sugar, palm oil, eggs, milk, fruits, vegetables, beef, cotton and rubber.
Farm shop: A retail outlet located on a working farm and operated by the producer. It offers consumers a range of farm‑produced goods directly from the farm: fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy products, eggs, honey, cereals, artisanal beverages, as well as processed or handcrafted items linked to the agricultural activity.
The farm shop promotes local sales, traceability, and proximity between producer and consumer, and is often part of an agro‑ecological approach aimed at reducing intermediaries, enhancing agro‑ecosystems, and supporting food sovereignty.
Feeding: The collection of foods and practices that ensure to every individual an access to sufficient, quality food that is appropriate to their physiological needs and sociocultural preferences, encompassing the dimensions of rights, justice and food security within food systems.
Fertilisation: The application of any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origins to a soil to supply one or more elements essential to the growth of plants.
Fertiliser: Substance added to soil for the purpose of promoting plant life, usually containing nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, e.g. manure, guano, rock phosphates.
Fertiliser efficiency: Measure of the ability of a fertilizer input (mineral fertilizer, livestock effluents, sewage sludge, soil amendments, etc.) to be actually utilized by crops. It is generally quantified as the ratio between the amount of nutrients taken up by the plant (or the yield increase achieved) and the amount of nutrients applied, expressed as a percentage or as a yield unit per unit of fertilizer. This efficiency encompasses agronomic dimensions (nutrient uptake), environmental dimensions (minimisation of losses and impacts), and economic dimensions (optimisation of fertilisation costs).
Fertiliser management: Set of practices and strategies aimed at planning, applying, and monitoring the use of fertilisers (organic, mineral, or mixed) so as to meet the nutritional needs of crops while respecting the principle of minimum input and the recycling of nutrients. It integrates crop succession, soil work, and agro ecological objectives (preserving soil health, reducing environmental impacts, optimising ecosystem services, and taking social and economic dimensions into account).
Fertiliser use: The set of practices involving the application of substances (synthetic mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers, green manures) to soils or crops in order to supply the nutrients required for plant growth. Within agroecology, fertiliser use is designed to reduce inputs of mineral fertilizers by favoring organic sources (e.g., inter cropping with legume sowings) while maintaining productivity, soil sustainability (formation of stable organic matter), and farm competitiveness. It also encompasses the management of environmental impacts, such as limiting the impact on water quality and preserving local resources.
Field: A limited area of land with grass or crops growing on it, which is usually surrounded by fences or closely planted bushes when it is part of a farm.
Field area: An area inherent in a field, expressed in m2 or ha.
Field configuration: Spatial and functional arrangement of agricultural parcels within a territory, encompassing parcel size, shape, crop distribution, rotation and association systems, as well as their connections to soil, livestock, and material flows, with the aim of optimizing agro‑ecological interactions, enhancing the resilience of the production system, and improving the efficiency of cropping practices.
Field dimension: Spatial measurement describing the extent of a field, parcel, or homogeneous unit of geographic space. It includes length, width, and area (usually expressed in meters, hectares, or square kilometers) and is used to characterize the size of a geofacies (typically on the order of a few hundred meters) or of a study area at common cartographic scales ranging from 1:5 000 to 1:25 000.
In agro‑ecological and forest contexts, field dimensions provide information on the physical size of the studied space, which is essential for mapping, resource management, and the assessment of environmental functions.
Field layout: Spatial and functional organization of agricultural parcels within a territory, encompassing their allocation, arrangement, and management (rest periods, crop rotation, fertilisation, renewal) in order to optimise soil fertility, limit degradation, and meet the requirements of sustainable production.
Field management: A set of cultural practices and operations aimed at preparing, maintaining, and optimizing the physical, biological, and agronomic conditions of a field in order to ensure its productivity, quality, and sustainability. It includes soil work (plowing, harrowing, tillage, etc.), management of soil fertility and structure, weed control, plant protection, irrigation regulation, seedbed preparation and monitoring, as well as conservation and restoration actions for the vegetative cover, all generally organized over a seasonal period corresponding to the duration of the crop.
Field shape: a)The geometric configuration of a field or cultivated parcel, describing the shape of its perimeter (e.g., rectangular, square, linear, circular, irregular, etc.). b) A characteristic that is affected by topography, soil type, irrigation constraints, cultural practices, and management objectives (e.g., optimisation of mechanisation, erosion control, adaptation to emergent ridges or dikes). c) A factor taken into account in agro‑ecology and land‑use planning to tailor production strategies, biodiversity, and the environmental functions of the soil.
Flora: The sum total of the kinds of plants in an area at one time.
Flowering: The process involved in transforming a meristem that produces vegetative structures, such as leaves, into a meristem that produces reproductive structures, such as a flower or an inflorescence.
Flowering plant species: Taxon of individuals of the same species belonging to the plant kingdom that exhibit the distinctive characteristic of angiosperms, namely the production of flowers (specialized reproductive organs) which, after pollination and fertilization, develop into fruits containing seeds. This category includes all plant species whose life cycle incorporates a flowering phase, whether cultivated (cereals, legumes, service crops, etc.) or wild, and it plays a central role in agrobiodiversity, and the ecosystem services associated with agro ecosystems.
Flowers: The reproductive structure of angiosperm plants, consisting of stamens and carpels surrounded by petals and sepals all borne on the receptacle.
Fodder production: In livestock farming, the set of activities and practices aimed at generating the roughage intended for the herd (green forages, dehydrated forages, straw, fibrous by products, hay, silage, baled hay, etc.). It includes the management of forage areas (forage crops, pastures, seed bed crops), agronomic optimisation (fertilisation, variety selection, crop rotation), harvesting, conservation and the year round availability of forage in order to meet the animals’ nutritional requirements.
Food losses: Portion of food commodities that, at any stage of the agri food chain (production, harvest, storage, processing, transport, distribution, or consumption), is not incorporated into human nutrition and disappears because of deterioration, rejection, waste, trampling, physical losses, or any other factor that results in the product remaining unused. When talking about forages, it is possible to mention “feed losses”.
Food supply for insects: The collection of nutritional resources (vegetation, pollen, nectar, sugar secretions, other insects, decomposing organic matter, etc.) that are provided or encouraged within an agroecosystem in order to sustain the survival, reproduction, and effectiveness of beneficial insects (predators, parasitoids, pollinators) and, when applicable, their natural preys, within the framework of conservation biological control and the promotion of agroecological production systems.
Forage: Refers to plants or plant parts other than separated grains fed to or grazed by domestic animals. Forage may be fresh, dry or ensiled (such as pasture, green chop, hay, haylage).
Forage crop: A crop with plants cultivated to feed animal in the form of annual fodder or pasture. Plants cultivated as fodder may belong to the legume or grass family, or to another family.
Forage security: Ensuring, for a livestock operation, a sufficient year round availability of forages in both quantity and quality (grass, hay, silage, baled hay, etc.) so that the herd nutritional needs are met and the risks linked to fluctuations in plant production, climatic events, or market variations are limited. It results from a combination of management practices (rotational grazing, diversification of vegetative cover, storage of reserves) and the development of producers competencies aimed at providing a stable, sustainable and resilient feed supply.
Forest: Generally, an ecosystem characterized by a more or less dense and extensive tree cover. More particularly, a plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, growing more or less closely together.
Frequency: The number of occurrences of a periodic phenomenon within a specific amount of time.
Functional group: A set of species or organisms that share similar functional attributes and perform comparable roles in ecosystem processes. In an agroecosystem, these groups (or guilds) include, for example, nitrogen‑fixing species, non‑fixing plants, granivores, and frugivores, and they are used to analyze the relationships among individuals of different species and their environment.

G

Genetics: The science that is concerned with the study of biological inheritance.
Geological features: Attributes or properties of the rock substrate and soil of a given area, encompassing its mineral composition, texture, structure, age, origin (formation, tectonics, sedimentation), as well as the physical and chemical processes that shape it. These features influence the pedoclimatic conditions, fertility, water holding capacity, and, more broadly, the adaptation of organisms (plants, animals, humans) to their local environment.
Goat: A hardy domesticated ruminant mammal that has backward-curving horns and (in the male) a beard. It is kept for its milk and meat, and noted for its lively behaviour.
Grain feeding: Practice of feeding livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, etc.) that consists of providing them primarily with cereals (wheat, corn, barley, oats, rye, etc.) in the form of whole, cracked or milled grains, often supplemented with other ingredients (protein sources, minerals, vitamins). This method aims to increase the animals’ energy intake and weight gain, improve production performance (meat, milk, eggs), and meet the density requirements of production in intensive or semi‑intensive farming systems. It is distinguished from forage‑based feeding (grass, pasture) and generally involves ration management, cereal storage, and monitoring of the animals’ digestive health.
Grass quality: The set of agronomic, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of a grass or pasture that determine its value for animal production. It includes the available biomass, botanical composition (species diversity), protein content, fibre (cellulose, lignin), mineral and energy content, digestibility, and palatability. These attributes directly influence the productivity, health, and performance of livestock as well as the sustainability of farming systems.
Grasses: A very large and widespread family of Monocotyledoneae, with more than 10.000 species, most of which are herbaceous, but a few are woody. The stems are jointed, the long, narrow leaves originating at the nodes. The flowers are inconspicuous, with a much reduced perianth, and are wind-pollinated or cleistogamous. The fruit in single-seeded, usually a caryopsis. Grasses are the most important of all species for food and feed.
Grassland: biome found in regions where the average annual precipitation (ca. 25–76 cm) is sufficient to support the growth of grasses and other herbaceous plants but generally insufficient to support continuous tree cover. In wetter regions grassland is maintained as a result of grazing by herbivores.
Grassland connectivity: The degree of spatial interconnection among different parcels or strips of permanent grasslands, which facilitates the movement of organisms (herbivores, pollinators, beneficial species), genetic flow, the circulation of ecosystem services (food provision, soil and water regulation, carbon sequestration), and the resilience of the pastoral network within agro ecological systems.
Grassland cutting schedule: A pre established temporal program that defines the periods for cutting (mowing) permanent grasslands. It is set according to agronomic indicators (grass height, phenological stage, leaf number, species composition, length of rest period) and production objectives (quantity and quality of the forage), as well as the preservation of ecosystem services (soil protection, carbon sequestration, biodiversity). The schedule aims to optimise the use of the grassland while limiting losses due to trampling and refusals, and it is incorporated into low input livestock systems and agro ecological practices.
Grassland diversity: The collective variety of living organisms—mainly plants—that compose a grassland, encompassing genetic, species level, and agroecosystem diversity, together with their interactions with other taxa (insects, microbes, etc.). This diversity constitutes a resource for the quantity and quality of forage production, the conservation of wild species and the maintenance of habitats for associated wildlife.
Grassland fertilisation: The set of nutrient inputs (organic, mineral, or mixed fertilizers) applied to a permanent grassland in order to maintain or optimise its forage productivity, biodiversity, and ecological balance. It includes:
• Agronomic objectives: support grass growth, ensure the availability of high quality forage for grazing and cutting, and preserve plant species richness.
• Practices: application of fertilisers (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, secondary nutrients) according to soil and vegetative cover needs, taking into account the phenological stage of the plants and the resting period of the grassland.
• Environmental impacts: moderate fertilisation promotes floristic diversity and soil life; intensive fertilisation, especially mineral, can lead to a reduction in species number and impair the ecological functions of the grassland.
In practice, grassland fertilisation is part of an integrated vegetative cover management system, combined with grazing, mowing and the monitoring of indicators (grass height, leaf number, floristic composition). It also constitutes a component of agricultural heritage, influencing the quality of PDO protected products (milk, cheese, meat).
Grassland management: A set of practices and strategies for the planning, maintenance, and renewal of permanent (or natural) grasslands aimed at optimizing both their agronomic performance (yield, quality, and early availability of forage) and their ecosystem services (species diversity, carbon sequestration, soil protection, water purification, support for beneficial insects and pollinators, and landscape aesthetics). It is particularly applied to low‑stocking‑density livestock systems, favors natural resources (unseeded or over‑seeded pastures with diverse species mixes), and uses species diversity and abundance as indicators of agronomic and environmental potential.
Grazing: Feeding on standing vegetation, as by livestock or wild animals.
Grazing animals: The collection of livestock activities and management systems aimed at obtaining animal origin products (meat, milk, eggs, fibers, etc.) from domestic animals. This concept encompasses animal health and welfare, soil preservation and biodiversity, the reduction of inputs (pharmaceutical, veterinary, plant protective), as well as agro ecological approaches and the “One Health” principle, seeking to reconcile economic performance, environmental sustainability, and the resilience of production systems.
Grazing and mowing practices: In agroecology, a suite of pasture management techniques that combine the grazing of herbivores (often in rotation – rotational grazing) with the mowing (cutting or harvesting) of vegetation. This dual approach aims to optimise forage production, preserve biodiversity, reduce tractor work, and maintain soil health by exploiting the growth phases of grasses (tillering, mowing) in a complementary manner.
Grazing date: The date on which grazing is allowed or carried out on an herbaceous plot, determined according to the developmental stage of the plants (grasses, weeds, forage crops, etc.) in order to optimise forage quality, control the drying of cut grass, and manage plant resources sustainably.
Grazing design: The set of principles, methods, and planning decisions used to organize the use of herbaceous land by livestock. It includes:
• Dividing the grazing area into parcels of appropriate size.
• Defining a rotation schedule with specific grazing (presence) and rest (restitution) periods for each parcel (e.g., simplified rotational grazing ≈ 10 days, dynamic rotational grazing ≈ 1–2 days).
• Choosing the management mode (continuous versus rotational grazing) according to agronomic, ecological, and socio economic objectives.
• Integrating agro ecological concepts (ecosystem services, sustainability, respect for the natural functions of the landscape) and, where relevant, the ethical and philosophical dimensions derived from permaculture.
In short, grazing design aims to optimise animal productivity while preserving pasture health and the resilience of agroecosystems.
Grazing efficiency: The ability of a grazing system to simultaneously achieve the targeted agronomic, economic, and ecological objectives. It is measured by the pasture capacity to:
• Maximize animal performance (growth, milk production) for a given number of livestock,
• Optimize the use of available vegetative surface** (stocking rate, animal density, grazing duration),
• Maintain or improve the health and biodiversity of the vegetation cover** (service plants, agro ecological infrastructures),
• Preserve soil fertility and ecosystem functions** (nutrient cycling, water retention),
• Reduce external inputs (bought forage, fertilizers, energy) and environmental impacts (erosion, greenhouse gas emissions).
In practice, grazing efficiency results from implementing principles such as rotational grazing, the “laws of rational grazing,” and integrated agroecosystem management. It may be expressed, for example, by tripling the animal stocking rate without pasture degradation, or by increasing milk production while conserving local biodiversity.
Grazing groups: A set of animals (typically livestock) placed simultaneously on a specified pasture parcel for a defined period as part of a rotational or dynamic grazing management system. This group constitutes the operational unit used to monitor pasture condition indicators (grass height, phenological stage, grazing pressure, rest period, etc.) and to optimize the ecosystem services provided by grazing.
Grazing management: Organisation of grazing by the farmer on an annual, seasonal or daily basis, including the allocation of plots to the different groups of animals that make up the herd.
Grazing period: The period of time during which livestock are permitted to graze a specific plot or pasture before it is rested, determined according to the grazing plan and the pasture condition indicators (grass height, phenological stage, leaf count, species present, etc.).
Grazing practices: The collection of livestock feeding methods that rely on grazing, encompassing particularly continuous grazing (where the herd remains on the same plot) and rotational grazing (the pasture is divided into smaller paddocks and the herd is moved among them). Rotational grazing may be “simplified,” with a stay of roughly ten days per paddock, or “dynamic,” limiting the stay to one or two days. These practices are embedded in an agroecological approach that seeks a sustainable agriculture that is economically viable, ecologically sound, ensuring social equity.
Grazing time: The period, expressed in days (or hours), during which livestock remain on a given paddock before being moved to another paddock as part of a rotational grazing system. It is one of the key indicators of grazing management, influencing the phenological stage of the grass, pasture rest, and animal stocking rate.
Green boundary management: A series of coordinated practices, decisions, and actions aimed at planning, establishing, maintaining, and enhancing agroecological infrastructure habitats (grass strips, hedgerows, trees, service plants, etc.) located along the edges of agricultural fields. This management seeks to strengthen ecological functions—biodiversity, pollination, biological pest control, soil protection, and micro‑climate regulation—while supporting the competitiveness and sustainability objectives of farms and fostering the social and environmental synergies characteristic of collective projects such as GIEE.
Ground: The top layer of the land surface of the earth that is composed of disintegrated rock particles, humus, water and air.

H

I

K

Kale: A leafy vegetable belonging to the species Brassica oleracea var. acephala, cultivated for its broad, either curly or flat, dark‑green leaves (sometimes tinged with violet). It is part of the cabbage group and is renowned for its high content of vitamins (A, C, K), minerals (calcium, iron) and phytochemical compounds (glucosinolates, antioxidants). Kale is eaten raw in salads, steamed, sautéed, or incorporated into a variety of dishes, and it is prized in agroecology for its resilience to diverse climatic conditions and its ability to contribute to crop biodiversity.

L

Label: A distinctive sign, often in the form of a logo or an official statement, assigned to a product, an agricultural operation, or a service, certifying that it meets a predefined set of criteria (quality, origin, production method, environmental compliance, etc.). The label serves to inform the consumer and to add value to the good or activity according to requirements verified by a certification body or a competent authority.
Labour intensity: The degree of magnitude and frequency of cultural or mechanical operations applied to a soil, assessed from the depth, the area worked, the number of passes, and the energy mobilised (engine power, type of implement). It indicates the force with which the soil is “worked,” i.e., the disturbance of its structure, its aggregates, and its ecological functions, and serves as a criterion for adjusting agro‑ecological or intensification practices.
Lameness: Lameness occurs when an animal has leg or foot pain that affects how they move.
Land use change: Changing the purpose and modalities of land use, such as turning a forest into a grassland. Land use change is a main driver of biodiversity erosion, especially in agricultural landscapes. Land use is one of the 9 planetary boundaries. Incentive-based agri-environmental policies aim at inuencing land-use pattern.
Landscape elements: In visual assessment work, landscapes can be divided into four major elements: a) Form is the perceived mass or shape of an object that appears unified, and which provides a consciousness of its distinction and relation of a whole to the component parts. b) Line is the real or imagined path, border, boundary, or intersection of two planes, such as a silhouette, that the eye follows when perceiving abrupt differences in form, colour or texture. c) Colour is a visual perception that enables the eye to differentiate otherwise identical objects based on the wavelengths of reflected light. d) Texture is the visual feel of a landscape.
Landscape features: The ensemble of visible and functional attributes that define the identity of a terrestrial area, resulting from the interaction between natural factors (topography, climate, soils, biodiversity, ecosystem services) and human activities (agricultural practices, land‑use planning, cultural heritage). These attributes encompass the aesthetic, ecological, sociocultural and economic dimensions of the landscape.
Landscape semi-natural cover: The ensemble of vegetal elements (trees, shrubs, hedgerows, grassy strips, meadows, wooded areas, orchards, etc.) present on the rural landscape that are not intensively exploited as crops or pastures, but instead arise from low‑intensity or non‑intensive management, natural succession, or agro‑ecological enhancement.
This cover contributes to biodiversity, soil protection, climate regulation, refuge for auxiliary species, and the provision of ecosystem services within agricultural systems.
Landscape structure: The spatial arrangement and organization of the various biophysical elements of a territory (agricultural parcels, hedgerows, woods, wetlands, watercourses, fallow lands, natural areas, infrastructure, etc.) together with their connections and degrees of fragmentation. It characterizes the configuration of the landscape and determines ecological functions, ecosystem services (pollination, soil fertility, climate regulation, aesthetic value), biodiversity, and agricultural practices within agro‑ecological systems.
Lay: A natural or semi-natural grassland often associated with the conservation of hay or silage.
Leader system: A set of (organizational, social, or ecological) systems characterized by the presence or emergence of one or more “leader” actors that influence, coordinate, or direct the internal dynamics of the system. These leaders may be individuals, institutions, species, or functional entities (e.g., a dominant tree in a forest, a pilot farmer in an agro‑ecological network) whose actions generate feedback loops, steer resource flows, and modulate the behavior of other system components. Leader systems are distinguished by:
• Power or influence asymmetry: the leader(s) wield authority or influence that is disproportionate to that of other agents.
• Articulation capacity: they ensure system coherence and stability by synchronizing the actions of the various elements.
• Feedback‑emitting role: their decisions produce feedback loops that can amplify or dampen system responses.
• Adaptability potential: in response to environmental or social changes, leaders can adjust their strategies, prompting evolution of the overall system.
In agro‑ecological approaches, leader systems may refer, for example, to pioneering farmers who introduce innovative practices, dominant crops that structure landscape composition, or governance structures that steer territorial food networks.
Lease: Any agreement which gives rise to relationship of landlord and tenant (real property) or lessor and lessee (real or personal property). Contract for exclusive possession of lands or tenements for determinate period. Contract for possession and profits of lands and tenements either for life, or for certain period of time, or during the pleasure of the parties.
Leather: The dressed or tanned hide of an animal, usually with the hair removed.
Legume: Annual or perennial, herbaceous or shrubby species whose fruit is a pod. Many legumes have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which means that nitrogen fertilisers are not needed for their cultivation. Their seeds are particularly rich in protein (20 to 40% in dry seeds, depending on the species), fibre and micronutrients. They are used for seed production, fodder or ecosystem services.
Legume proportion: The share, expressed as a percentage or a fraction, of legumes (seeds, pods, or forage plants) present in a given set—for example the cultivated area of a farm, the composition of a crop rotation, the human or animal food basket, or the share of plant‑derived protein in the diet—relative to the total of the elements considered (crops, foods, proteins, etc.). This proportion is used to measure the contribution of legumes to agro‑ecological diversification, nutritional balance, and the resilience of production systems.
Licence: Instrument in which power is conferred on someone for some act or activity.
Liming: Application of lime or calcareous materials (marl, limestone, chalk, tangue, defecation scum) to an agricultural plot as a basic calcium amendment to correct the soil pH and thus improve its physical and chemical characteristics.
Linked habitats: In agroecology, a collection of semi‑natural environments (agro‑ecological infrastructures) that, through spatial proximity or the presence of corridors (linear, areal, or point‑type), are interconnected within an agro‑ecosystem. This linkage forms a functional network that enables auxiliary organisms (predators, pollinators, parasitoids) to move, to access complementary resources (food, oviposition sites, refuges), and to complete their entire life cycles between cultivated fields and natural habitats, thereby enhancing biodiversity and the sustainability of agricultural systems.
Livestock: Domestic or farmed animals raised for food and fibre such as hogs, sheep, cattle, and horses for production of food and fibre.
Livestock care: A suite of practices and interventions aimed at ensuring the health, welfare, and productivity of livestock. These include, in particular, appropriate feeding (grazing management, forages and supplements), disease prevention and treatment, health and reproductive monitoring, protection against environmental stresses (e.g., ground conditions that can support the weight of the animals), as well as hygiene and comfort measures.
Livestock management: A set of practices and strategies aimed at organizing, regulating, and optimizing the raising of farm animals (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) in accordance with sustainable development principles. It includes:
• Planning of feed (grazing, supplemental feed, use of nitrogen‑fixing legumes);
• Implementation of grazing systems (continuous or rotational) to preserve soil structure and pasture biodiversity;
• Monitoring animal health and welfare (parasite control, disease prevention);
• Managing environmental impact (preventing soil degradation, protecting water resources, reducing greenhouse‑gas emissions);
• Integrating livestock into the local agro‑ecosystem by valorizing ecosystem services (natural fertilization, biological pest control, maintenance of vegetative cover);
• Coordinating within collective structures (Economic and Environmental Interest Groupings, cooperatives) to improve the economic, social, and environmental performance of farms.
This approach seeks to reconcile animal productivity, the resilience of agro‑ecological systems, and the preservation of natural resources.
Local breeds: A group of animals belonging to the same breed whose individuals share closely related genetic and phenotypic traits, molded by adaptation to a specific pedoclimatic and sanitary environment within a defined geographic area. This adaptation gives the local breed heightened hardiness, lower dependence on external inputs, and greater resilience to environmental constraints.
Local conditions: A set of specific characteristics of a territory—climatic, pedological, social, economic, and institutional—that delineate the framework for agricultural production or a food system. It includes the local climate, soil properties, natural resources, locally developed know‑how, and the governance dynamics unique to the place.
Local market: A commercial exchange venue where food and agricultural products are sold and purchased within a defined territory, involving the direct participation of local actors (producers, cooperatives, processors, consumers, etc.). It is based on the use of natural resources and locally‑developed know‑how, promotes the re‑appropriation of food, regional food governance, and the economic and social development of the rural environment.
Local production: A set of agricultural and food goods produced from natural resources, know‑how, and social knowledge that are specific to a given territory, involving the participation of local actors (producers, cooperatives, processors, consumers) in processes of relocalisation, governance, and territorialisation, and aimed at creating material and immaterial goods that are particular to the terroir.
Lucerne: Perennial forage legume, cultivated all over the world and producing protein rich forage, harvested as hay, haylage or for production of dehydrated pellets.

M

N

Native: Belonging naturally to a given territory, occurring in that space without human intervention. In agroecology, the term applies both to indigenous (originating from the local environment) species and to neo‑indigenous species—that is, plants that, through natural extension (dispersed by water, wind, animals, etc.), have become established and stabilized for more than ten years in a territory where they were not historically present. They constitute a spontaneous component of the biotope, often valued in agroecological infrastructures.
Native plant species: A plant whose natural origin is located within the territory in question, which has become established and proliferated without human intervention and forms part of the local floristic heritage. It occurs spontaneously in the vegetation (or plant assemblage) of a habitat and can serve as an indicator of the physicochemical or biological characteristics of that environment.
Natura 2000: European network of protected natural sites, established under the “Habitats” Directive (92/43/EEC) and the “Birds” Directive (2009/147/EC). It brings together Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in order to conserve natural habitats, wild fauna and flora, as well as species threatened with extinction, while ensuring the long‑term sustainability of ecological functions and environmental services throughout the territory of the European Union.
Nematode: A group of unsegmented worms which have been variously recognized as an order, class, and phylum. They may cause damages on crops through damages on roots or tubers. But some nematodes are beneficial and used as biocontrol.
Nest box: An artificial device, often made of wood or other natural material, installed within an agro‑ecosystem to provide a nesting site for animal species (birds, bats, insects, etc.). As part of agro‑ecological infrastructures, the nest box contributes to the preservation and reinforcement of local biodiversity by compensating for the shortage of natural breeding sites, while aligning with a sustainable development approach that integrates ecological, social, and economic criteria.
Nesting: The building of nests for egg laying and rearing of offspring.
Nesting bird protection: A suite of agro‑ecological practices and measures designed to preserve, restore and enhance bird nesting habitats within agricultural landscapes (hedgerows, grassy strips, natural meadows, mixed hedges, agroforestry, etc.). The aim of this approach is to maintain or increase populations of nesting birds, which provide spontaneous or induced biological pest regulation by feeding on pest species (ladybirds, tits, etc.), while also contributing to biodiversity, soil health and the sustainability of production systems. It falls under the umbrella of conservation biological control and integrated crop protection.
Nitrogen: The atmosphere is composed at 79% by nitrogen, with a triple link between the two N atoms. It is a very stable gas, used for inerting. There are many forms of reactive nitrogen when a single atom is linked to other atoms (C, H, O,…). Some of these reactive forms are essential in agriculture (ammonia, nitrate) and food (proteins, amino acids). As a consequence, N is essential nutrient in the food supply of plants and the diets of animals. Animals obtain it in nitrogen-containing compounds, particularly amino acids. Although the atmosphere is nearly 80% gaseous nitrogen, very few organisms have the ability to use it in this form, through the symbiosis with some bacteria. Most higher plants normally obtain it from ammonia or nitrates available in the soil, which they can absorb.
Nitrogen application: Operation consisting in introducing nitrogen—either as mineral fertilizers (nitrates, urea, ammonium) or as organic amendments (manure, plant residues, catch‑crops)—into the soil or growing substrate in order to meet plants’ nutritional requirements. This practice aims to compensate nitrogen deficits, support vegetative growth, and optimise yield, while it can be modulated by agro‑ecological strategies (e.g., nitrogen‑fixing legumes, nitrate‑trapping catch‑crops – CIMS) that limit or replace external nitrogen inputs.
Nitrogen content: The proportion, usually expressed as a percentage (or in g kg⁻¹), of total nitrogen (N) present in a soil sample, organic matter, plant residue, or agricultural product. It encompasses mineral nitrogen (nitrate NO₃⁻, ammonium NH₄⁺) as well as organic nitrogen (proteins, amino acids, humic substances). Nitrogen content is a key indicator of soil fertility and of the potential nutrient supply to crops, particularly within agro‑ecological practices (green‑manure effect, CIMS, intermediate nitrate‑trap crops).
Nitrogen plan: In agriculture, a structured set of measures, practices, and policies aimed at optimising nitrogen management within a territory or production system.
The nitrogen plan brings together, in particular: the reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer inputs; the use of legumes and nitrogen‑trapping catch crops (CIMS) to fix or retain soil nitrogen; the application of green manures and organic residues with an appropriate C/N ratio; the monitoring of nitrogen flows (fertilisation, leaching, volatilisation); and the implementation of monitoring tools and regulatory instruments intended to limit nitrogen losses (nitrates, greenhouse‑gas emissions) while maintaining soil fertility and crop productivity.
Nitrogen use: The capacity of a plant production system to absorb, transform, and mobilize nitrogen that is present in the soil or fixed from the atmosphere (especially via legumes and their symbiotic bacteria) in order to meet the nutritional needs of the current crops, enrich organic residues (green‑manure effect), and reduce nitrogen losses (leaching, greenhouse‑gas emissions). This use includes the direct supply of nitrogen to plants, the retention of nitrogen in intermediate crops (CIMS) during drainage periods, and the progressive release of that nitrogen to subsequent crops.
No-till: A system of sowing crops without tilling the soil with a plow, disk, chisel, or other tillage implement.
Nocturnal: Characterized by a primary activity period during the night, as opposed to a diurnal species. Nocturnal animals hunt, feed, reproduce, and move during the hours of darkness and sleep during the day.
Their way of life can be disrupted by light pollution, which turns night into day and alters predator‑prey interactions as well as the usual refuges of species.
Non-native species eradication: An intentional strategy aimed at completely eliminating or sustainably reducing introduced species outside their natural range (non‑indigenous or invasive species) in order to prevent their negative impacts on ecosystems, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. It relies on actions such as physical removal, trapping, biological control, habitat management, or the use of prescribed fires.
Nutrient: Chemical elements which are involved in the construction of living tissue and which are needed by both plant and animal. The most important in terms of bulk are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with other essential ones including nitrogen, potassium, calcium, sulphur and phosphorus.
Nutrient management: Managing the amount, source, placement, form, and timing of the application of nutrients and soil amendments to ensure adequate soil fertility for plant production and to minimize the potential for environmental degradation, particularly water quality impairment.
Nutrition: A process in animals and plants involving the intake of nutrient materials and their subsequent assimilation into the tissues.

O

On-farm selling: A marketing approach in which the agricultural producer sells his or her food or non‑food products directly to consumers at the farm itself—whether through a farm shop, a stall, a farm‑gate sale, a farmers’ market, or subscription schemes such as boxes or baskets. This practice eliminates intermediaries, enhances traceability, strengthens the relationship between producers and consumers, and can contribute to the economic and social valorisation of the farm enterprise.
Optimal soil fertility: The level of fertility (the soil’s capacity to supply essential nutrients) that corresponds to the pedoclimatic optimum; that is, the degree of nutrient availability—originating from the soil’s inherent fertility or enhanced by the farmer—that enables the highest agricultural yield appropriate to the local pedological and climatic conditions, without resorting to excessive external inputs and while avoiding unnecessary fertilizer applications.
Optimising fertilisation: Action involving the precise adjustment of the type, rate, timing, and method of application of chemical fertilizers according to the actual needs of crops and the pedoclimatic characteristics of the soil, in order to maximise economic yield while limiting excess nitrogen and phosphorus. This optimisation relies on a detailed understanding of the environment (soil analyses, crop response forecasts, pest status) and fits within the framework of sustainable or “reasoned” agriculture, where input efficiency is proportional to the applied dose and any use beyond the optimal efficiency threshold is avoided to reduce environmental impacts (pollution, risk of resistance).
Optimising organic nutrient of farm: A set of agro‑ecological practices aimed at adjusting the type, amount, and timing of organic inputs (organic fertilizers and amendments) to maximize their nutritional efficiency for crops while improving the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological properties. This optimisation is based on taking into account agrobiodiversity (cover crops, soil fauna and flora), reducing chemical inputs, ensuring circularity of material flows (recycling co‑products, closing nutrient loops), and enhancing the resilience of agro‑ecosystems, with the goal of supplying plants with the nutrients they need while preserving or strengthening ecosystem services.
Orchards density: Measure of the number of fruit trees planted per unit of area (usually expressed in trees/hectare or trees/acre) within an orchard. This density determines the intensity of land use, influences competition for resources (water, nutrients, light), the associated biodiversity, and the vulnerability to risks (erosion, soil impermeabilization, over‑ or under‑concentration). In an agroecological approach, the management of orchards density aims to optimize yield while preserving the health of the territory, avoiding over‑density that can exacerbate erosion and under‑density that diminishes ecosystem services.
Orchards fruit trees: Agricultural production systems that incorporate trees cultivated for their fruit, established either as a monoculture or in association with other crops or livestock. Within agroforestry, orchards can consist of inter‑cropped plots (e.g., nut or apple trees grown alongside field crops), rows of trees on field margins, fruit hedgerows, or tree‑lined bocage. They operate at various scales, from a single plot to a farm or a broader territory. Orchards contribute to planned biodiversity, prophylaxis (health prevention), and ecosystem services while providing horticultural products for direct consumption or processing.
Organic: Relating to biology or living organisms, characterized by the involvement of life and natural processes. In agronomy and agroecology, the term specifically denotes inputs of living origin (organic inputs), the activities and functions carried out by the soil community (soil biological activity), as well as farming practices founded on respect for and preservation of biodiversity and natural ecosystems (organic agriculture, permaculture).
Organic fertilisation: The set of practices that involve adding to the soil nutrient elements of organic origin (animal manures, compost, plant residues, green manures, etc.) with the aim of enriching endogenous fertility, improving soil structure, water‑holding capacity and microbial biodiversity, while limiting the reliance on mineral fertilizers.
Organic fertiliser efficiency: The capacity of an organic fertiliser (green manure, compost, manure, crop residues, etc.) to meet the nutritional needs of crops while enhancing soil quality and function. It is measured by:
• the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients that are actually assimilable by plants;
• the contribution to the formation of stable organic matter that increases water‑holding capacity and medium‑ to long‑term soil fertility;
• the reduction of the required input of synthetic mineral fertilisers;
• 4. the overall impact on the agro‑ecological sustainability of the system (lower pesticide residues, improved biodiversity, limitation of greenhouse‑gas emissions).
A high organic fertiliser efficiency therefore translates into a durable improvement in plant productivity while limiting fossil‑based inputs and negative environmental effects.
Organic matter nutrient: Nutritive matter derived from the remains of plants and animals and their waste products in the environment.
Other economic activities: Economic activity carried out by a farmer or a farm that is not primary agricultural production (crop growing, livestock breeding, etc.) but that generates supplemental income. It includes, for example, processing of farm products, direct marketing, services (agritourism, training, environmental services), renewable energy production, or any other activity aimed at diversifying revenue sources, strengthening the farm’s autonomy, and creating links with the local territory, all within a framework of economic, social, and environmental sustainability.
Outcrops: Exposure of the parent rock at the soil surface, where the lithic substrate appears directly, not covered by a pedological layer. It contrasts with pedological horizons (e.g., alios, grison, sub‑soil, etc.) which, although sometimes confused with rocks, remain soil formations.
Over-grazing: Intensive grazing by animals on an area of land, particularly rangelands and grasslands, such that vegetation is damaged and the soil becomes liable to erosion by wind and rain, sometimes resulting in desertification. Overgrazing implies that the stocking rate on a given pasture is too high, i.e., economic resources are used inefficiently and the value of society’s output is less than it could be.
Over-seeding: An agronomic technique that involves sowing a second crop into the standing cover of an already established primary crop (interseeding). This practice aims to diversify rotations, optimize the use of resources (light, nutrients, water), strengthen both economic and agronomic resilience (income security, reduction of pathogen pressure), and enhance ecosystem services within an agro‑ecological framework.

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Rain: Precipitation in the form of liquid water drops with diameters greater than 0.5 millimetres.
Rat: A rodent mammal of the genus Rattus, generally of small to medium size, with a thick coat, crescent-shaped incisors, and a long tail. Native to Asia, it has spread widely across the globe through human activity: it has been transported intentionally or accidentally with goods, thereby becoming an allochthonous or feral species (animals that have reverted to a wild state after domestication or introduction). The rat can live in immediate proximity to humans (in urban habitats, dwellings, and agricultural establishments) or establish populations at a distance, sometimes partially relying on human resources. In the absence of natural predators in new environments, it can reach high densities and exert a strong influence on native fauna, notably through competition, disease transmission, and habitat alteration (soil bioturbation). Consequently, the rat is considered a major vector of ecological and health impacts in anthropogenic ecosystems.
Redclover: Perennial fodder legume used as fodder for creating artificial and temporary grasslands. Red clover is also used as a service plant because it improves soil structure (cover crop) and enriches the soil with organic matter (green manure).
Reduce workload: An action that involves decreasing the amount, complexity, or intensity of work assigned to an individual, a team, or a system, in order to lighten the workload, improve efficiency, prevent overwork, or optimize task distribution. This reduction can result from process re‑organization, automation, delegation, activity prioritization, or the elimination of non‑essential tasks.
Reducing feed inputs: Action or strategy aimed at decreasing the quantity of feed bought by households, communities, or businesses, with the purpose of limiting the consumption of natural resources, reducing environmental impact and food/feed waste, and fostering a more modest and sustainable diet within agri‑food systems.
Reducing inputs: In agroecology, a practice that aims to lower both the amount and the reliance on agricultural inputs (fertilizers, plant‑protective chemicals, synthetic amendments, etc.) by promoting the use of biological or organic inputs, the incorporation of plant material, diversified cropping techniques, and ecosystem services, with the goal of limiting the environmental, economic, and social impacts of agricultural production.
Reducing waste: Process or set of measures aimed at decreasing the amount of waste generated, limiting losses and the waste of resources (especially water), and improving the management of residual flows. This includes behavioral changes, the adoption of more efficient technologies or devices, and the optimisation of production and consumption practices in order to reduce environmental impact and the costs associated with waste disposal.
Refuses: Plants or vegetation that are not eaten by livestock and that, in the absence of grazing, can become established and progressively invade pastures, thereby constituting an undesirable form of vegetation or a “refusal” for livestock production.
Region: A designated area or an administrative division of a city, county or larger geographical territory that is formulated according to some biological, political, economic or demographic criteria.
Regrowth: Vegetative bud and shoot elongation, either after shoot is cut or after shoot has attained sufficient maturity.
Reseeding: The practice of sowing seeds again on a surface that has already been cultivated, degraded, or impoverished, with the aim of restoring, maintaining, or improving vegetation cover. This technique is part of sustainable agro‑ecosystem management, enhancing soil resilience, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem services (e.g., erosion control, fertility enhancement, biodiversity support). It is commonly applied after disturbances such as intensive grazing, fire, or heavy exploitation, and is also used within crop‑rotation schemes or permanent vegetative‑cover systems.
Resilience: The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.
Resource: Any component of the environment that can be utilized by an organism.
Retailer network: A set of retail outlets (grocery stores, supermarkets, local markets, specialty shops, etc.) that are interconnected and ensure the distribution of food products from producer to final consumer within a given territory. This network, often integrated into territorial food systems, promotes short food supply chains, food relocalization, local resilience, and food justice by structuring the interrelationships among production, processing, distribution, and consumption.
Riparian: Frequenting, growing on, or living on the banks of streams or rivers.
Riparian margins: Vegetated strips that line watercourses (rivers, streams, lakes, or wetlands). These riparian zones, situated between the aquatic environment and the adjacent land, are characterized by typically hydrophilic vegetation and play a key role in bank stabilization, pollutant filtration, regulation of the hydrologic regime, preservation of biodiversity, and the connection of terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Consequently, they constitute a fundamental component of riparian ecosystems and of sustainable water‑resource management.
Risk: The expected number of lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and disruption of economic activity due to a particular natural phenomenon, and consequently the product of the probability of occurrence and the expected magnitude of damage.
Risk management: The process of evaluating and selecting alternative regulatory and non-regulatory responses to prepare for the probability of an accidental occurrence and its expected magnitude of damage, including the consideration of legal, economic and behavioral factors.
Riverbank flora: The assemblage of plant species inhabiting the terrestrial zone of a riverbank, encompassing trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses that grow on the riparian zone (or ripisylve). This vegetation forms a transitional edge between water and land, influencing bank stability, controlling lateral exchanges, providing shade, moderating water temperature, supplying organic material (leaves, twigs) and contributing to the overall ecological functionality of the watercourse.
Roadway: Infrastructure constructed to provide a passage for traffic (vehicles, pedestrians, livestock) between two points or habitats. The surface, typically paved or covered with a stable material, may—within agro‑ecological approaches—be partially or entirely overlaid with soil or natural material so as to allow the establishment of spontaneous vegetation or a service cover.
Robust: Exhibiting a strong capacity to resist disturbances, to maintain its functions or performance despite variations, shocks, or constraints. In ecology and agroecology, robustness refers to the stability of an indicator (e.g., the IBGN/IBGA index) or of a system when faced with environmental changes, reflecting the reliability of the assessment and the persistence of ecological interactions.
Rock: A compact, consolidated mass of mineral material, typically formed by the crystallisation or consolidation of its parent rock, constituting a distinct lithospheric unit separate from soil and pedologica horizons. It is characterised by its density, mechanical strength and the lack of any significant organic structure, thereby differing from pedological horizons such as alios or grison.
Rock formations: Natural geological structures resulting from the accumulation, deposition, consolidation, or transformation of rocks, visible at the surface or below ground. They may assume a variety of shapes (layered strata, domes, arches, columns, cliffs, etc.) and arise from geological processes such as sedimentation, volcanism, plate tectonics, erosion, and metamorphism. They constitute the basic elements of Earth’s relief and are frequently studied in geology, geomorphology, and ecology to understand Earth’s history and the associated habitats.
Rocky outcrops: The exposure at the soil surface of a mass of rock (parent rock, sandstone, etc.) that is not overlain by a pedological horizon. It is a location where the lithological substrate appears in the open air, visible without excavation, typically resulting from erosion or from a very thin edaphic cover.
Rodent: A gnawing mammal of an order that includes rats, mice, squirrels, hamsters, porcupines, and their relatives, distinguished by strong constantly growing incisors and no canine teeth.

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Yarn: Long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, or ropemaking.
Yoghurt: Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk.
Young stock: The group of farm animals that are still young, prior to their placement in a finishing or breeding program (calves, lambs, piglets, broiler chickens, etc.). These individuals have specific nutritional and behavioural needs—for example, grazing for herbivores or a diet based on whole grains for poultry—and require special management aimed at ensuring optimal growth, health, and welfare, in order to secure the long‑term sustainability of the herd.